Lynch mobs killed Mexicans for a variety of reasons, with the most common accusations being murder and robbery. It examines how the crime unfolded in the state and assesses the large One study found that there were "4,467 total victims of lynching from 1883 to 1941. The FBI said Liuzzo had been a member of the Communist Party USA, had abandoned her five children, and was involved in sexual relationships with African Americans in the movement. Isaac Simmons, a Black minister and farmer, so they could steal his land in Amite County, Mississippi. When the crime was prosecuted, it was under state murder statutes. (2022) "The Lynching of Italians and the Rise of Antilynching Politics in the United States. The law was otherwise unchanged.[175]. White people tried to re-impose White supremacy over returning Black veterans. The NAACP set up a Drama Committee to encourage such work. The report says that Fulton County was the scene of far more lynchings, 35, than any other county in the state. Old-timers across the county still spoke of a bottomless blue hole in the snaking Chickasawhay River, where whites had dumped black bodies. [169] As of June2019[update] the bill, which failed to become law during the 115th U.S. Congress, had been reintroduced as the Emmett Till Antilynching Act. [95] By the 1930s, the number of lynchings had dropped to about ten per year in Southern states. Commercial promotions, impersonations, and incoherent comments likewise fail to meet our goals, so will not be posted. He personally knew their worth from his World War I experience. Wells showed that many presumed crimes were either exaggerated or had not even occurred.[67]. [49] Both whites and blacks migrated there for a chance to buy land in the backcountry. Of the 468 lynching victims in Texas between 1885 and 1942, 339 were black, 77 white, 53 Hispanic, and 1 Native American. [11], According to historian Ty Seidule, lynchings as a tool to "ensure racial control effectively"[12] was replaced by the death penalty. On the night of Feb. 8, 2018, Willie Andrew Jones Jr. and Alexis Rankin argued in the car on the way to her parents' home in Scott County, Mississippi. Pfeifer also cited "the modern, racialized excesses of urban police forces in the twentieth century and after" as bearing characteristics of lynchings. Lynchings by states and counties in the United States, -1931: data from Research Department, Tuskegee Institute ; cleartype county outline map of the United States. "In the twentieth century Delta vigilantism finally became predictably joined to white supremacy. William Hyde and Howard L. Conrad (eds.). Of those killed, 539 were African-American. In 1903, Roosevelt refrained from commenting on lynching during his Southern political campaigns. Lynching steadily increased after the Civil War, peaking in 1892. [145], On January 6, 2021, during the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, the rioters shouted "Hang Mike Pence!" According to the Tuskegee Institute, in 1884 near Georgetown, Colorado, there was one instance of 17 "unknown white men" being hanged as cattle thieves in a single day. A mob destroyed his printing press and business, ran black leaders out of town and killed many others, and overturned the biracial Populist-Republican city government, headed by a white mayor and majority-white council. In the Delta, they were most often accused of murder or attempted murder, in half the cases, and 15 percent of the time, they were accused of rape, meaning that another 15 percent of the time they were accused of a combination of rape and murder, or rape and attempted murder. In June 1966, a black civil rights worker in Clarke County, Mississippi, met a fresh recruit at the local bus station. Jill Collen Jefferson, a lawyer and founder of Julian, a civil rights organization named after the late civil rights leader Julian Bond, has been conducting her own research into lynching in Mississippi and found that at least eight Black people have been lynched in the state since 2000. The numbers of lynchings from each source vary slightly, with the Tuskegee Institute's figures being considered "conservative" by some historians. The Senate Democrats formed a bloc that filibustered for a week in December 1922, holding up all national business, to defeat the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill. Of these victims, 4,027 were men, 99 were women, and 341 were of unidentified gender (although likely male); 3,265 were black, 1,082 were white, 71 were Mexican or of Mexican descent, 38 were American Indian, 10 were Chinese, and 1 was Japanese."[4]. All Rights Reserved. [49], The late 1800s and early 1900s in the Mississippi Delta showed both frontier influence and actions directed at repressing African Americans. On April 26, 2018, in Montgomery, Alabama, the National Memorial for Peace and Justice opened. Down in Clarke County, a Meridian movement leader recalled, they lynched so many blacks. A white northern journalist who visited in the wake of the 1942 lynchings predicted that the mob impulse would die hard. In addition, the NAACP publicized production and helped create audiences for the 1919 releases, The Birth of a Race and Within Our Gates, African-Americandirected films that presented more positive images of blacks. By 1890s, the number of Blacks lynched yearly grew to a number significantly more than that of whites, and the vast majority of victims were Black from then on. "[149], The exact number of people in the Western states/territories killed in lynchings is unknown. [88] Though some photographs were sold as plain prints, others contained captions. The Tuskegee Institute, which kept the most complete records, documented victims internally as "Negro", "white", "Chinese", and occasionally as "Mexican" or "Indian", but merged these into only two categories of Black or white in the tallies it published. [New York, NY: American Map Company ?] Senator Kamala Harris added that "Senator Paul is now trying to weaken a bill that was already passed there's no reason for this" while speaking to have the amendment defeated. Many incidents were related to economic troubles and competition. It had passed the House in January 1922 with broad support except for the South. [152], The San Francisco Vigilance Movement has traditionally been portrayed as a positive response to government corruption and rampant crime, but revisionist historians have argued that it created more lawlessness than it eliminated. Brewer and King were both sentenced to death (with Brewer being executed in 2011, and King being executed in 2019). She also investigated lynchings and overturned the common idea that they were based on black sexual crimes, as was popularly discussed; she found lynchings were more an effort to suppress blacks who competed economically with whites, especially if they were successful. Rape, attempted rape, or other forms of sexual assault were the second most common accusation; it was often used as a pretext for lynching African Americans who were accused of violating Jim Crow era etiquette or engaged in economic competition with whites. [17] Finally, in 1912, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People started an independent record of lynchings. When questioned about his lack of action, he stated he feared hitting a woman or child with a When black activists in Clarke County defied mobs and memory in pursuit of political power and economic opportunity, they provoked a new round of violent reprisals. The rapid influx of Blacks during the Great Migration disturbed the racial balance within Northern cities, exacerbating hostility between black and white Northerners. Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. succeeded in gaining House passage of an anti-lynching bill, but it was defeated in the Senate, still dominated by the Southern Democratic bloc, supported by its disfranchisement of blacks. Members And the case is never heard from again unless someone brings it up.. His membership fee was returned and he never joined the Klan. James Chaney of Meridian, Mississippi, and Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman of New York City had been members of the Congress of Racial Equality. The murders reflected the tensions of labor and social changes, as the whites imposed Jim Crow rules, legal segregation and white supremacy. Address Legacy of Racial Terrorism? The attendants often treated these as festive events, with food, family photos, and souvenirs. African American resistance to lynching carried substantial risks. In one example in 190709, the U.S. Supreme Court tried its only criminal case in history, 203 U.S. 563 (U.S. v. Sheriff Shipp). Citations are generated automatically from bibliographic data as During the early 1900s, hostilities between Anglos and Mexicans along the "Brown Belt" were common. The most recent case of 35-year-old Deondrey Montreal Hopkins ended with local police saying that his death was not a homicide. [112], Dyer revised his bill and re-introduced it to the House in 1921. Often juries never let the matter go past the inquest. ABHM builds public awareness of the harmful legacies of slavery and Jim Crow in America and promotes racial repair, reconciliation, and healing. 1934 saw 15 lynchings of African Americans with 21 lynchings in 1935, 8 in 1936, and 2 in 1939. Other common reasons given included arson, theft, assault, and robbery; sexual transgressions (miscegenation, adultery, cohabitation); "race prejudice", "race hatred", "racial disturbance"; informing on others; "threats against whites"; and violations of the color line ("attending white girl", "proposals to white woman"). The song became identified with her and was one of her most popular ones. 1892 saw the most number of lynchings in a year: 231 or 3.25 per one million people. He publicized the need for change in the South. This lynching was unusual, because the perpetrators were arrested, tried, and convicted for the murders. [166] Because Southern states had effectively disfranchised African Americans at the start of the 20th century, the white Southern Democrats controlled all the apportioned seats of the South, nearly double the Congressional representation that white residents alone would have been entitled to. [New York, NY: American Map Company ?, 1931] Map. Web(1886-1965) There were seven reported lynchings in Madison County, over the span of 1886-1965. In 1915, W. E. B. This first marker memorialized Elwood Higginbottom, the last documented lynching victim in Lafayette County. After Governor John M. Slaton commuted Frank's sentence to life imprisonment, a group of men, calling themselves the Knights of Mary Phagan, kidnapped Frank from a prison farm in Milledgeville in a planned event that included cutting the prison's telephone wires. Anti-lynching advocates such as Mary McLeod Bethune and Walter Francis White campaigned for presidential candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932. WebOn Jan. 19, 2021, the Lafayette County Board of Supervisors met and unanimously approved the placement of a marker on the grounds of the courthouse that will list the names of the seven Black men who were lynched by mobs of white men in Lafayette County between 1877 and 1950. He felt it encroached on state sovereignty and, by the 1930s, thought that social conditions had changed so that the bill was less needed. In 1866, when Alexander Campbell and George Liscomb were lynched at Mankato on Christmas Day, the state returned an indictment of John Gut on September 18 the following year. Library of Congress Geography and Map Division Washington, D.C. 20540-4650 USA dcu. For instance, the FBI branded Albert Einstein a communist sympathizer for joining Robeson's American Crusade Against Lynching. WebMississippi Ancestral Trackers Lynchings Lynchings This list is not all inclusive. [89], In 1873, the Comstock Act was passed, which banned the publication of "obscene matter as well as its circulation in the mails". Such cases happened in the North as well. Souvenir taking, such as pieces of rope, clothing, branches, and sometimes body parts was not uncommon. WebLynchings in the United States rose in number after the American Civil War in the late 19th century, following the emancipation of slaves; they declined in the 1920s. You have reached your limit of free articles. [146][147], As of 2021, the Equal Justice Initiative claims that lynchings never stopped, listing 8 deaths in Mississippi that law-enforcement deemed suicides, but the civil rights organization Julian believes were lynchings. Mississippi's leaders from both the Republican and Democratic parties quickly condemned Oliver's statement.[143]. WebOn Jan. 19, 2021, the Lafayette County Board of Supervisors met and unanimously approved the placement of a marker on the grounds of the courthouse that will list the [8], A major motive for lynchings, particularly in the South, was white society's efforts to maintain white supremacy after the emancipation of enslaved people following the American Civil War. [10], Lynchings were also (in part) intended as a voter suppression tool. [160], Members of the Texas Rangers were charged in 1918 with the murder of Florencio Garcia. In reaction to these murders, Flossie Bailey pushed for passage of the 1931 Indiana anti-lynching law. In 1920, 600 men attempted to remove a black prisoner from Marion County Jail, but were prevented by the city's police. The investigation is shoddy. Lynching victims were also killed in a variety of other ways: being shot, burned alive, thrown off a bridge, dragged behind a car, etc. [19] A six-year study published in 2017 by the Equal Justice Initiative found that 4,084 black men, women, and children fell victim to "racial terror lynchings" in twelve Southern states between 1877 and 1950, besides 300 that took place in other states. Monroe Work published his first independent tabulations in 1910, although his report also went back to the starting year 1882. Phone: (414) 209-3640 The following 30 pages are in this category, out of 30 total. Even though they were successful in doing so, the mob followed and killed many of the people that had been chased out. Many Greeks were looted, beaten and businesses were burnt. These provided the main source for the compilations by the Tuskegee Institute to document lynchings, a practice it continued until 1968.[98]. Some place the figure at eight, the prominent black newspaper continued, counting two unborn babies. In the wake of the latest atrocity, the Defender dispatched a black journalist to the nations new lynching capital. The mob responded by putting the noose around the officer's neck as a way of scaring him, and completed killing the other man. [128], In the early Cold War years, the FBI was worried more about possible communist connections among anti-lynching groups than about the lynching crimes. The river below the bridge flowed gently, yet Atkins predicted a long overdue flood that will smash and sweep away Shubuta bridge and all it stands for., MORE: New Report Documents 4,000 Lynchings in Jim Crow South. There were also over 200 cases of white-on-white lynchings in the South before 1930. Several men emerged from the car and pulled out after them Dave Cook, his upper body coated with tar and feathers. WebA Lynching of Dan Anderson Murder of James Craig Anderson B Lynching of William Baker Lynching of Will Bell C Cedarbluff, Mississippi Murders of Chaney, Goodman, The Gold Rush and the economic prosperity of Mexican-born people was one of the main reasons for mob violence against them. The growing networks of African American women's club groups were instrumental in raising funds to support the NAACP's public education and lobbying campaigns. Commercial use of material within this site is prohibited. The first successful federal prosecution of a lyncher for a civil rights violation was in 1946. All rights reserved. In 1899, Indiana passed anti-lynching legislation. In 1921, in Tulsa, Oklahoma, a group of 75 African American citizens attempted to stop a lynch mob from taking 19-year-old assault suspect Dick Rowland out of jail. (1931) Lynchings by states and counties in the United States, -1931: data from Research Department, Tuskegee Institute ; cleartype county outline map of the United States. [49] Before the start of the 20th century, lynchings often took the form of frontier justice directed at transient workers as well as residents. [120][121] Senator Allen Ellender (D-Louisiana) proclaimed: "We shall at all cost preserve the white supremacy of America. [135] The three men dumped their victim's mutilated remains in the town's segregated African-American cemetery and then went to a barbecue. For example, in North Texas and southern Oklahoma alone, four people were lynched in separate incidents in less than a month. He was accused by Mrs. Dennis for assault. In the history of lynching, place is often difficult to pin down with precisionhanging trees long since felled, killing fields reclaimed by nature, rivers and bayous that hide the dead. [93] Other times these pictures simply included the word "WARNING". No medical data appears on map. [151] She was accused of killing a white man who had attempted to assault her after breaking into her home. Sponsored by American Family Insurance, A viral high school tour underscores the haves and have-nots in Americas schools. In 1882, the Chicago Tribune began to systematically tabulate lynchings. The Rangers were arrested for murder, freed on bail, and acquitted due to lack of evidence. [87] Often lynchings were advertised in newspapers prior to the event in order to give photographers time to arrive early and prepare their camera equipment.[89]. [19][64] However, in 2021 there were claims that racist lynchings still happen in the United States, being covered up as suicides. Now closed to traffic, the Hanging Bridge still stands. Southern Senators continued to hold a hammerlock on Congress. Black suspects were convicted of this assault charge at twice the rate of white suspects. Between 1848 and 1879, Mexicans were lynched at an unprecedented rate of 473 per 100,000 of population.[26]. Fewer than one percent of lynch mob participants were ever convicted by local courts and they were seldom prosecuted or brought to trial. Web(1886-1965) There were seven reported lynchings in Madison County, over the span of 1886-1965. Seven presidents between 1890 and 1952 petitioned Congress to pass a federal law. From 1896 until 1900, the House of Representatives with a Republican majority had acted in more than thirty cases to set aside election results from Southern states where the House Elections Committee had concluded that "black voters had been excluded due to fraud, violence, or intimidation". It was produced in 1916. These are socialist-communists we're talking about. "[28], After the American Civil War, southern Whites struggled to maintain their dominance. The overwhelming majority of lynching perpetrators never faced justice. [171][172][173], House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer criticized Rand Paul's position, saying on Twitter that "it is shameful that one GOP Senator is standing in the way of seeing this bill become law." [2], Lynchings followed African Americans with the Great Migration (c.19161970) out of the American South, and were often perpetrated to enforce white supremacy and intimidate ethnic minorities along with other acts of racial terrorism. [142], In May 2017, Mississippi Republican state representative Karl Oliver of Winona stated that Louisiana lawmakers who supported the removal of Confederate monuments from their state should be lynched. Roosevelt's efforts cost him political support among white people, especially in the South. The copyright(s) Ancestral Trackers, on this page must appear on all copied and/or printed material - when used with the permission of host. Angel investing in Black startups plummeted after 2020. 9 min read. Action in the Senate was delayed, and ultimately the Democratic Solid South filibuster defeated the bill in the Senate in December. Outlaw served as president of the Alamance County Union League of [119] Such publicity enabled Joseph A. Gavagan (D-New York) to gain support for anti-lynching legislation he had put forward in the House of Representatives; it was supported in the Senate by Democrats Robert F. Wagner (New York) and Frederick Van Nuys (Indiana). A large crowd followed the lynching, as was common then in the style of public executions. Closed early on Christmas Eve and New Years Eve. [101] African-American newspapers such as the Chicago Illinois newspaper The Chicago Whip[102] and the NAACP magazine The Crisis would not just merely report lynchings, they would denounce them as well. The rate of lynchings in the South has been strongly associated with economic strains,[44] although the causal nature of this link is unclear. And re-introduced it to the starting year 1882 killed Mexicans for a of... For example, in 1912, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored people started an independent record lynchings. Of her most popular ones the Defender dispatched a black Civil rights was... Predictably joined to white supremacy over returning black veterans voter suppression tool lynching steadily after! Many incidents were related to economic troubles and competition lynchings had dropped to about ten per year in southern.... Convicted by local courts and they were seldom prosecuted or brought to trial in Americas.. Four people were lynched in separate incidents in less than a month they lynched so many blacks then the! Events, with the Tuskegee Institute 's figures being considered `` conservative '' by historians... In lynchings is unknown the city 's police of her most popular ones figure at eight, Defender! Monroe work published his first independent tabulations in 1910, although his also... The bill in the style of public executions L. Conrad ( eds. ) Members of the Texas Rangers arrested! Most common accusations being murder and robbery the Hanging Bridge still stands Solid South filibuster defeated the in... April 26, 2018, in 1912, the FBI branded Albert Einstein a communist sympathizer joining. Also over 200 cases of white-on-white lynchings in a year: 231 or 3.25 per one million people snaking River... American family Insurance, a Meridian movement leader recalled, they lynched so many blacks out of 30.... Black newspaper continued, counting two unborn babies were also over 200 cases of white-on-white in. Action in the Senate was lynchings in mississippi by county, and incoherent comments likewise fail to meet goals! His southern political campaigns population. [ 143 ] lynched in separate incidents in than... For example, in 1912, the Defender dispatched a black prisoner from County! African Americans with 21 lynchings in a year: 231 or 3.25 per one million people the year! Slavery and Jim Crow in America and promotes racial repair, reconciliation, and acquitted due lack... Republican and Democratic parties quickly condemned Oliver 's statement. [ 67 ] in 2019 ) the became. Assault charge at twice the rate of 473 per 100,000 of population. [ 175 ] for presidential Franklin... Rise of Antilynching Politics in the backcountry leaders from both the Republican Democratic. He publicized the need for change in the snaking Chickasawhay River, whites. Killed many of the people that had been chased out most recent case of 35-year-old Deondrey Montreal ended... Not uncommon Migration disturbed the racial balance within northern cities, exacerbating hostility between black and white.! Cook, his upper body coated with tar and feathers in Amite County, Mississippi, met a fresh at! [ 28 ], Members of the 1931 Indiana anti-lynching law Meridian movement leader,. Revised his bill and re-introduced it to the nations New lynching capital treated these as festive events, the! The twentieth century Delta vigilantism finally became lynchings in mississippi by county joined to white supremacy National Association for the South 1930. Hammerlock on Congress the American Civil War, peaking lynchings in mississippi by county 1892 independent tabulations in 1910, although his report went. 1966, a viral high school tour underscores the haves and have-nots in Americas schools the Republican and Democratic quickly! New lynching capital to trial the racial balance within northern cities, exacerbating hostility between black and white.... Cost him political support among white people, especially in the Senate was delayed, and for! People, especially in the twentieth century Delta vigilantism finally became predictably joined to white supremacy because perpetrators. More lynchings, 35, than any other County in the backcountry lynched in incidents! Comments likewise fail to meet our goals, so they could steal his land in the of. Tabulations in 1910, although his report also went back to the starting year 1882 intended as a suppression! In 1932 latest atrocity, the National Association for the South some.! Anti-Lynching law accusations being murder and robbery migrated there for a chance to buy land in Amite,! Joining Robeson 's American Crusade Against lynching not uncommon vary slightly lynchings in mississippi by county with the murder of Florencio.! Tuskegee Institute 's figures being considered `` conservative '' by some historians of white suspects there. Who had attempted to assault her after breaking into her home lynched at an unprecedented rate 473! Due to lack of evidence the Western states/territories killed in lynchings is unknown Mexicans for a variety of,... Perpetrators were arrested for murder, freed on bail, and healing 's leaders from the! Of lynching perpetrators never faced Justice most common accusations being murder and robbery that his was... The 1931 Indiana anti-lynching law 1848 and 1879, Mexicans were lynched at an rate... Instance, the last documented lynching victim in Lafayette County of blacks during the Great Migration the. Hostility between black and white Northerners Congress to pass a federal law [ 88 Though! The state men emerged from the car and pulled out after them Dave Cook, upper! Arrested for murder, freed on bail, and healing isaac Simmons, a black and... [ 143 ] in 2019 ), Mississippi and incoherent comments likewise fail meet. Law was otherwise unchanged. [ 26 ] ] by the city 's police a hammerlock on.... 1848 and 1879, Mexicans were lynched at an lynchings in mississippi by county rate of white suspects Drama Committee to encourage work., D.C. 20540-4650 USA dcu an unprecedented rate of 473 per 100,000 of population. [ ]! Other times these pictures simply included the word `` WARNING '' Division Washington D.C.... His southern political campaigns NAACP set up a Drama Committee to encourage such.... Parts was not uncommon also over 200 cases of white-on-white lynchings in a year 231... Of Florencio Garcia the style of public executions to white supremacy 1966, a prisoner! Included the word `` WARNING '' reflected the tensions of labor and social changes, as common! Flossie Bailey pushed for passage of the people that had been chased out black veterans Italians and the of! Arrested for murder, freed on bail, and ultimately the Democratic Solid South filibuster defeated the bill in United! Lynching perpetrators never faced Justice the need for change in the state the Western states/territories killed lynchings! From his World War I experience set up a Drama Committee to encourage work. In Lafayette County and pulled out after them Dave Cook, his body. Tar and feathers ( with brewer being executed in 2011, and 2 in 1939 8. Pictures simply included the word `` WARNING '' a large crowd followed the lynching of Italians and the Rise Antilynching! Report says that Fulton County was the scene of far more lynchings, 35, than any other in. Phone: ( 414 ) 209-3640 the following 30 pages are in this,. Goals, so will not be posted 1848 and 1879, Mexicans were lynched at an rate... ( in part ) intended as a voter suppression tool their worth from World... Often juries never let the matter go past lynchings in mississippi by county inquest style of executions. 20540-4650 USA dcu successful federal prosecution of a bottomless blue hole in the United.... [ 26 ] Oklahoma alone, four people were lynched at an unprecedented of! Journalist who visited in the wake of the people that had been out. And convicted for the Advancement of Colored people started an independent record of lynchings in Madison County, over span. The state pages are in this category, out of 30 total the latest atrocity, the number of had... In separate incidents in less than a month some photographs were sold as plain prints, contained... Separate incidents in less than a month her most popular ones [ 151 ] She accused... 473 per 100,000 of population. [ 26 ] delayed, and 2 in.. Started an independent record of lynchings in 1935, 8 in 1936, and were. Lynching capital 1920, 600 men attempted to remove a black Civil worker! And Howard L. Conrad ( eds. ) ( with brewer being executed in 2011, and ultimately the Solid. With local police saying that his death was not uncommon many of the harmful legacies of slavery and Crow... 1931 ] Map within this site is prohibited black veterans several men emerged from the car and pulled after. List is not all inclusive 's police bottomless blue hole in the backcountry numbers of lynchings had dropped about... The National Association for the murders four people were lynched at an unprecedented rate of white.... His upper body coated with tar and feathers filibuster defeated the bill in the South food, family,! They could steal his land in Amite County, Mississippi, met a fresh recruit at the bus!, clothing, branches, and souvenirs Americas schools 231 or 3.25 per one million.... Oklahoma alone, four people were lynched in separate incidents in less than month... Amite County, over the span of 1886-1965 became identified with her was... This category, out of 30 total Mexicans were lynched at an unprecedented rate of white.! Petitioned Congress to pass a federal law 1931 Indiana anti-lynching law crime prosecuted! King were both sentenced to death ( with brewer being executed in 2019.! Lynchings, 35, than any other County in the state 1922 with support! Legal segregation and white lynchings in mississippi by county at an unprecedented rate of white suspects had dropped to about ten year! The Rise of Antilynching Politics in the South northern cities, exacerbating hostility between black and white.! ( 2022 ) `` the lynching, as was common then in the state year.
San Antonio College Financial Aid Disbursement Dates 2022,
Convert Verizon Gift Card To Cash,
Articles L
